Method of measuring cardiac related parameters non-invasively via the lung during spontaneous and controlled ventilation

ABSTRACT

A method of identifying alveolar ventilation (VA) in a subject, the method comprising: (1) using a breathing circuit which, at exhalation, keeps exhaled gas separate from inhaled gas and at inhalation, when a first gas set (FGS) flow is less than the subject&#39;s minute ventilation (VE), results in a subject inhaling FGS first and then a second gas set (SGS), for the balance of inhalation; (2) setting the FGS flow at a rate greater that VE; (3) measuring an end tidal CO2 concentration at a steady state; (4) progressively lowering the FGS flow until a time equal to a recirculation time of CO2 in the subject; and (5) deriving VA as the rate of FGS flow at the intersection between an average PETCO2 in a steady state and a line fit to the PETCO2 values after the rise in PETCO2 values begins until the recirculation time.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.14/925,725 filed Oct. 28, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 13/914,292 filed Jun. 10, 2013, which is acontinuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/545,562 filed May 30, 2006,now U.S. Pat. No. 8,460,202, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S.application Ser. No. 10/509,068 filed Mar. 17, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No.7,913,690, which is a national phase filing, under 35 U.S.C. § 371 ofInternational Application No. PCT/CA2004/000234 filed Feb. 18, 2004,which claims benefit of priority from Canadian Patent Application No.2,419,622 filed Feb. 19, 2003, the disclosures of which are herebyincorporated by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention discloses a method that calculates non-invasively, viathe lung, the total cardiac output, pulmonary blood flow, shunt flow,anatomical and alveolar deadspace, true mixed venous O₂ saturation, truemixed venous PCO₂, and PaCO₂. Furthermore the method can be performed inventilated subjects, subjects breathing spontaneously, even in thepresence of variations in their tidal volume and breathing frequency.Subjects need not perform any respiratory manoeuvre such ashyperventilation or breath holding to perform the test.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Importance of Cardiac Output

A physician's ability to determine a patient's cardiac output ({dot over(Q)}, the volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute) is importantin the assessment of critically ill patients. There are various devicesand methods that provide a direct or indirect measure of {dot over(Q)}(see table 1). The most Common method used in clinical practice isthermo-dilution, established by Ganz et al (1). Commerciallymanufactured catheters (referred to as Swan-Ganz catheters, named afterthe inventors) contain multiple lumina, an embedded thermister, and aballoon at the tip. The method requires the insertion of the catheterthrough the skin to access a large central vein such as the internaljugular, subclavian, cephalic or femoral. When the balloon at the end ofthe catheter is inflated, the catheter tip is carried along with theflow of blood to the right ventricle of the heart and then into thepulmonary artery. The part of the catheter that remains outside the bodyhas connections that can be attached to electrical sensors thatdetermine the pressure and temperature in the pulmonary artery where thetip of the catheter is positioned. Calculation of {dot over (Q)}requires the injection of a fixed volume of cool liquid of knowntemperature into a lumen of the catheter that has its opening part wayalong its length (usually in a part of the catheter in the rightatrium). The thermister at the tip of the catheter will register changesin temperature as the cool liquid, carried by the blood, passes. Theextent of dilution of the cold bolus of liquid by warm blood willdetermine the temporal profile of the temperature change at the tip ofthe catheter. This is referred to as the thermodilution method ofmeasuring cardiac output (TD{dot over (Q)}).

The popularity of TD{dot over (Q)} stems from ease of use once thecatheter is in place. However, the placing and maintenance of thecatheter entails considerable risk and expense. Insertion of theSwan-Ganz catheter is associated with complications that are frequentlyfatal such as puncture of the carotid or subclavian artery withassociated internal haemorrhage or stroke, tension pneumothorax, ruptureof the right ventricle, malignant arrhythmias (including fatalventricular fibrillation), and rupture of the pulmonary artery. As aforeign body violating the skin barrier, a pulmonary artery catheter isa constant threat as a source of blood-born infection that is thegreatest risk to heart valves, artificial joints, and other implants.Such infections are medical disasters leading to severe morbidity anddeath. Furthermore, the use of pulmonary artery catheters to measureTD{dot over (Q)} is very expensive as it requires admission to anintensive care facility where there is continuous presence of criticalcare nursing and medical staff. Despite these risks, it is still not theideal method to measure {dot over (Q)} as it tends to overestimate {dotover (Q)} by as much as 10% compared to the Fick method (see below) and,for greatest accuracy, requires repeated measurements as its precisionis poor. The variability of repeated single measurements is about 22%and can be reduced to 10% by repeated averages of 3 measurements (2). Asingle thermodilution measurement is considered to be plus or minus 33%the true value. (3)

Because of the expense and risks of keeping the catheters in place, theyare removed as soon as practical, often within 24-48 hours of majorheart surgery. Often they are removed while the information they providecan still be clinically useful and well before the patient is no longerat significant risk for relapse. If the patient's health deteriorates, adecision must be made about re-inserting the catheter.

An automated non-invasive method of {dot over (Q)} monitoring would bevery useful in the following clinical scenarios:

-   -   a) Selected low risk patients now routinely undergoing pulmonary        artery catheterization for intra- and postoperative monitoring.    -   b) Patients whose {dot over (Q)} would be clinically important        to know but in whom the risks and costs of insertion of a        pulmonary catheter cannot be justified; this includes ward        patients, outpatients or patients in the emergency department or        doctor's office.    -   c) Patients who are too sick to warrant the added risk of        pulmonary artery catheter insertion    -   d) High and moderate cardiac risk patients undergoing minor and        moderate non-cardiac surgical procedures    -   e) Severely ill patients with non-cardiac disease.    -   f) Relatively healthy patients undergoing major stressful        surgery.    -   g) Situations in which {dot over (Q)} is clinically indicated        but there is no access to the expertise and critical care        facilities required for the use of the pulmonary artery        catheters.    -   h) Means of monitoring response to cardiovascular therapy such        as for hypertension and heart failure.    -   i) As a non-invasive diagnostic test of cardio-pulmonary status.    -   j) As a means of assessing cardiovascular fitness.

Despite these many applications, non-invasive methods of {dot over (Q)}measurements have not obtained widespread clinical acceptance. The mostcommonly researched methods include ECG bio-impedance (Imhoff, 2000(4)), and pulsed-wave Doppler esophageal sonography. These methods havegood repeatability (5-12) and good limits of agreement with eitherthermodilution or Fick-based methods but only in some populations ofsubjects. Each method fails in certain patients groups with suchpathologies as very high or low {dot over (Q)} states as occur insurgical patients, septic shock, exercise or cardiogenic shock.

2. Background Physiology and Definition of Terms

Venous blood returns to the right side of the heart from the muscles andorgans with reduced oxygen (O₂) and increased carbon dioxide (CO₂)levels. Blood from various parts of the body is mixed in the right sideof the heart and pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The bloodin the pulmonary artery is known as the mixed venous blood. In the lungsthe blood vessels break up into a network of small vessels that surroundtiny lung sacs known as alveoli. This network of vessels surrounding thealveoli provides a large surface area for the exchange of gases bydiffusion along their partial pressure gradients. After a breath of airis inhaled into the lungs, it dilutes the CO₂ left in the alveoli at theend of the previous expiration, thereby establishing a pressure gradientbetween the partial pressure of CO₂ (PCO₂) in the mixed venous blood(PvCO₂) arriving at the alveoli and the alveolar PCO₂ (PACO₂). The CO₂diffuses into the alveoli from the mixed venous blood diminishing thePCO₂ in the blood, and increasing the PCO₂ in the alveoli untilequilibrium is established between the PCO₂ in alveolar capillary bloodand the PCO₂ in the alveoli. The blood then returns to the left side ofthe heart via the pulmonary vein and is pumped into the arterial systemby the left ventricle. The PCO₂ in the arterial blood (PACO₂) is now thesame as that in the alveoli. When the subject exhales, the gas at thevery end of exhalation is considered to have come from the alveoli andthus simultaneously reflects the PCO₂ in the pulmonary capillaries andthe alveoli; the PCO₂ in this gas is called the end-tidal PCO₂ (PETCO₂).

The volume of gas breathed per minute, or minute ventilation ({dot over(V)}E), is measured at the airway opening (nose and/mouth) and isexpressed in L/min. The volume of breathed gas distributed to thealveoli (and thus contributing to gas exchange) is termed the alveolarventilation ({dot over (V)}A) and is also expressed in L/min. The partof {dot over (V)}E that does not contribute to gas exchange is termeddead space ventilation. This is divided into the anatomical dead spacethat consists of the trachea and other gas-conducting tubes leading fromthe nose and mouth to the alveoli, and the alveolar dead space that iscollectively the alveoli that are ventilated but not perfused withblood.

The {dot over (V)}E during normal breathing provides the {dot over (V)}Athat is required to eliminate the CO₂ brought to the lungs. {dot over(V)}E is controlled by a feedback system to keep PaCO₂ at a set level ofapproximately 40 mmHg. Under steady state conditions, the rate at whichCO₂ is exhaled from the lungs ({dot over (V)}CO₂) is equal to the ratethat it is brought to the lungs, which in turn is equal to the metabolicCO₂ production. We define steady state as the condition in which theflux of CO₂ at the lungs is equal to the CO₂ production and the ({dotover (V)} CO₂, PvCO₂, and PaCO₂ remain steady. If the {dot over (V)} CO₂is diminished, the CO₂ extraction from the mixed venous blood passing bythe alveoli will be reduced resulting in an increase in the PaCO₂ whenthat blood reaches the arterial system. As the blood traverses the body,it will pick up additional CO₂ and will return to the pulmonary arterywith a higher PCO₂ than on its previous passage. The time between thechange in {dot over (V)}CO₂ and reappearance of the blood with raisedPCO₂ in the mixed venous circulation is termed the recirculation timewhich is generally taken as 20-30 s in resting subjects.

3. The Fick Equation

The approach for respiratory-based methods for measuring {dot over (Q)}non-invasively is described by the Fick equation, a mass balance of anysubstance across the lungs. The Fick method was originally described forO₂ as a method for determining pulmonary blood flow. The Fick relationstates that the O₂ uptake by the lung is equal to the difference betweenthe pulmonary artery and systemic arterial O₂ contents times the {dotover (Q)}. The blood contents originally had to be obtained invasivelyfrom blood samples. The same relation holds with respect to CO₂. Theadvantage of using CO₂ as the tracer is that mixed venous and arterialblood contents of CO₂ may be determined non-invasively. The Fick massbalance equation for CO₂ is:

$\overset{.}{Q} = \frac{\overset{.}{V}\;{CO}_{2}}{{C\;\overset{\_}{v}\;{CO}_{2}} - {CaCO}_{2}}$where {dot over (Q)} is the cardiac output, {dot over (V)}CO₂ is therate of elimination of CO₂ at the lungs, CvCO₂ and CaCO₂ are the mixedvenous and systemic arterial contents of CO₂, respectively. {dot over(V)} CO₂ can be measured by a timed collection of expired gas andmeasuring its volume and CO₂ concentration. The term CaCO₂ can becalculated using an estimate of arterial PCO2 (PaCO₂) as derived fromthe PCO₂ of end tidal gas (PETCO₂). The hemoglobin concentration (easilyobtained from a venous blood sample or a drop of blood from a fingerprick) and the relation between blood PCO₂ and CO₂ content (availablefrom standard physiology texts) are then used to calculate CaCO₂.

However, CvCO₂ is difficult to estimate. The PCO₂ of mixed venous blood(PvCO₂) is difficult to determine as true mixed venous blood is presentonly in the pulmonary artery, which is inaccessible from the surface.The air in the lungs is in intimate contact with mixed venous blood, butCO₂ diffuses rapidly from the mixed venous blood into the alveoli beforean equilibrium is established. The PCO₂ of the expired gas thereforereflects this equilibrium PCO₂ and not the PCO₂ of mixed venous blood.The PvCO₂ can be determined from expired gas only when there has beenfull equilibration with continuously replenished mixed venous blood orpartial equilibration under controlled conditions that allow for backcalculation of PvCO₂ from the PCO₂ in expired gas. Hence duringrebreathing, the alveolar gas is not refreshed and the mixed venousblood continuously passes the alveoli such that an equilibrium isestablished whereby the PETCO₂ reflects the PCO₂ in mixed venous blood.

However, even in this scenario, the PCO₂ is not that which exists in thepulmonary artery. Blood in the pulmonary artery has a relatively lowPO₂. Because of the Haldane effect, the low PO₂ allows the CO₂ to becarried by the hemoglobin at a relatively low PCO₂. When the mixedvenous blood is exposed to gas in the alveoli, O₂ diffuses into theblood, binds to the hemoglobin and increases the PCO₂ needed for a givenCO₂ content on the hemoglobin (the complimentary aspect of the Haldaneeffect). All methods based on full or partial equilibration of alveolargas with PvCO₂ take into account that the equilibration is to a virtualPCO₂ that would exist if the CO₂ content of the hemoglobin were the sameas in mixed venous blood but the hemoglobin were saturated with O₂. Werefer to this as the oxygenated mixed venous PCO₂ (PvCO2-oxy). Becausethe relationship between PCO₂ and content of CO₂ in blood is known,CvCO₂ can be calculated from both the true PvCO₂ (as obtained, forexample, from a pulmonary arterial blood sample) and PvCO₂-oxy (asobtained by some of the non-invasive methods described below)¹. ¹ ThePvCO₂-oxy does not really exist but is a virtual number created byinstantaneously oxygenating mixed venous blood before and diffusion ofCO₂ into the alveoli. The CvCO₂ is the same in each.

4. Rebreathing—Equilibration Method

One method of measuring PvCO₂-oxy was introduced by Collier in 1956, andis known as the equilibration method. A bag is pre-filled with a highconcentration of CO₂ (˜10-13%) and the subject exhales and inhalesrapidly to and from the bag and CO₂ is monitored continuously at themouth. The object of the test is to find the combination of bag volumeand bag concentration of CO₂ such that once the gas in the bag mixeswith that in the lungs (the concentration of CO₂ in the residual gas inthe lung at the end of a breath in a healthy person is ˜5.5%), thepartial pressure of CO₂ in the lung is equal to that in mixed venousblood. A flat segment of the CO₂ tracing segment indicates that inspiredand expired PCO₂ are equal. To identify the true PvCO₂-oxy, the flatsegment must occur within the first 3-4 breaths, before recirculationraises the PvCO₂-oxy (see FIG. 16).

4.1.1 Advantages of the Equilibration Method

The capnograph reading is of gas equilibrated with PvCO₂-oxy and can beconsidered a directly measured value as opposed to a value obtained fromcalculation or extrapolation.

4.1.2 Limitations of the Equilibration Method

-   -   4.1.2.1 The CO₂ concentration in the bag depends on bag size,        the patient's lung volume, and the PvCO₂-oxy—the last being the        unknown value. Therefore, the concentration of CO₂ in the bag        must be individualized to the patient and thus found by trial        and error. The method is therefore difficult to automate fully.    -   4.1.2.2 In practice, since the characteristic of a suitable        endpoint (the plateau of PCO₂) is subjective, identification of        a suitable plateau is difficult to automate.    -   4.1.2.3 The manoeuvre of rebreathing from a bag is difficult to        perform in mechanically ventilated patients and is therefore not        suitable for such patients.    -   4.1.2.4 Inhaling 10-13% CO₂ is very uncomfortable and most        people cannot tolerate it. It is particularly uncomfortable to        someone who is short of breath or exercising.    -   4.1.2.5 The method requires an external source of CO₂. This        makes testing equipment bulky and awkward.    -   4.1.2.6 The method requires that the subject hyperventilate in        order to mix thoroughly the gas in the bag and the lungs before        recirculation of blood takes place. This requirement limits the        test to those subjects who can perform this manoeuvre and who        can provide this degree of cooperation. This excludes patients        who have severe lung disease, those who are too young, too        confused or too ill to cooperate.    -   4.1.2.7 The test loads a considerable volume of CO₂ into the        subject's lungs and at the same time prevents CO₂ from leaving        the blood for the duration of the test. This has negative        consequences for the subject:        -   4.1.2.7.1 Following the test, the subject must            hyperventilate to eliminate the applied CO₂ load as well as            the volume of metabolically-produced CO₂ not eliminated            during the test. This may pose a considerable burden for            some subjects with lung disease or exercising subjects who            are already expending considerable effort to cope with their            existing metabolic CO₂ load.        -   4.1.2.7.2 A period of hyperventilation following the test is            required to eliminate the CO₂. This may be difficult for            some subjects to perform and, consequently, they may            experience respiratory distress for some time until their            PCO2 is decreased.        -   4.1.2.7.3 Repeated tests must be delayed until the extra CO₂            is eliminated and the baseline state re-established.        -   4.1.2.7.4 The test itself may distress the subject and alter            the {dot over (Q)}.

5. Rebreathing—Exponential Method

In this technique, a small amount of CO₂ is placed in a bag and thesubject asked to rebreathe from the bag. The PETCO₂s of successivebreaths will rise exponentially towards PvCO₂-ox. A rising exponentialcurve is then fit to the PETCO₂s of these breaths to predict anasymptotic value that is assumed to be the PvCO₂-oxy (See FIG. 17).

5.1 Advantages of the Exponential Method

-   -   5.1.1 There is no requirement for respiratory manoeuvres by the        patient.    -   5.1.2 A smaller CO₂ load is placed on the subject in order to        perform the test.

5.2 Limitations of the Exponential Method

-   -   5.2.1 This is an indirect test in which the PvCO₂-oxy is not        measured directly but calculated from data generated by a test.    -   5.2.2 As the metabolic production of CO₂ is small compared to        the size of the lung and bag, the rise of PCO₂ occurs over a        prolonged period. This severely limits the number of useful data        points for accurate extrapolation from an exponential curve,        before recirculation.    -   5.2.3 The most important limitation of this and other methods        that use partial equilibration during rebreathing to extrapolate        to an asymptote using a single exponential is that the        assumptions underlying the method are incorrect. In fact, the        method produces two different mathematical profiles: the one        describing the washout of CO₂ from the lung into the bag is a        decreasing exponential whereas the second describing the        build-up of CO₂ released from the blood into the lung-bag        mixture is an increasing exponential (13). Only after the gases        in the lung-bag system have become well mixed do the two        exponentials resolve to a single exponential. By then, very few        breaths (if any) that can provide suitable data for        extrapolation from a single exponential can be taken before        recirculation.    -   5.2.4 A continually rising level of CO2 makes this test        unpleasant in conscious patients, especially in those exercising        or very ill.    -   5.2.5 The manoeuvre of rebreathing from a bag is difficult to        perform in mechanically ventilated patients and is therefore not        suitable for such patients.    -   5.2.6 The method requires an external source of CO₂. This makes        testing equipment bulky and awkward.    -   5.2.7 The test loads a volume of CO₂ into the subject's lungs        and at the same time prevents CO₂ from leaving the blood for the        duration of the test. Although the extent of the CO₂ load on the        subject is less than with the equilibration method, the negative        consequences for the subject, outlined in the section on the        equilibration method discussed above, must be considered.    -   5.2.8 Priming the rebreathing bag with some CO₂ improves the        predictive qualities of the asymptote since every data point        lies closer to the asymptote, but the increased CO₂        concentrations increase the discomfort and the limitations        approach those outlined above for the equilibration method.

6.0 Calculating {dot over (Q)} without First Calculating P{dot over(v)}CO₂-Oxy

Gedeon in 1980 described a method of calculating {dot over (Q)} inventilated patients via a differential Fick method that circumvents theneed to calculate PvCO₂-oxy. The underlying assumptions of the methodare that {dot over (Q)} and PvCO₂ will remain unchanged during a stepchange in lung CO₂ elimination and alveolar PCO₂ (PACO₂) lasting lessthan a recirculation time (about 30 seconds). Gedeon proposed reducinglung CO₂ elimination by reducing either the tidal volume or respiratoryfrequency setting of the ventilator. As a modification of this method,Orr et al. proposed leaving the ventilator settings unchanged andreducing lung CO₂ elimination by temporarily interposing a dead spacebetween the ventilator and the patient's airway resulting in a transientperiod of rebreathing previously exhaled gas.

6.1 Theoretical Basis of Gedeon/Orr Method:

The method applies to a subject being ventilated under controlconditions in which CO₂ elimination and PETCO₂ are measured. A testmanoeuvre consisting of a transient alteration in the CO₂ eliminationfor a time less than a recirculation time is effected and the resulting“equilibrium” PETCO₂ is noted. It is assumed that the {dot over (Q)} andPvCO₂-oxy during the test are unchanged from control conditions. TheFick equation for these two conditions can be written as

$\overset{.}{Q} = \frac{\overset{.}{V}\;{CO}_{2}}{{C\;\overset{\_}{v}\;{CO}_{2}} - {CaCO}_{2}}$$\overset{.}{Q} = \frac{\overset{.}{V}{CO}_{2}^{\prime}}{{C\;\overset{\_}{v}\;{CO}_{2}} - {CaCO}_{2}^{\prime}}$where {dot over (V)}CO₂′ is the CO₂ flux at the lungs during the testand CaCO₂′ is the corresponding ‘new’ arterial content of CO₂. These twoequations can be combined to yield the differential form of Fick'sequation:

$\overset{.}{Q} = \frac{\Delta\;\overset{.}{V}{CO}_{2}}{\Delta\;{{Ca}{CO}}_{2}}$where Δ denotes a “difference in”. Since the PaCO₂ and PvCO₂-oxy lie onthe same CO₂ dissociation curve, partial pressures of CO₂ can besubstituted for CO₂ content to yield the following relation:

$\overset{\cdot}{Q} = \frac{\Delta\overset{\cdot}{V}{CO}_{2}}{S*{\Delta PaCO}_{2}}$where S is the slope of the CO₂ dissociation curve. Like theconventional non-invasive CO₂-based Fick method, the differential Fickmethod relies on predicting PaCO₂ through measurements of PETCO₂.However, instead of requiring a calculation of PvCO₂-oxy, thedifferential Fick equation assumes no change in PvCO₂-oxy over theduration of the test, and uses the measured quantities {dot over (V)}CO₂and {dot over (V)}CO₂′ and well as PaCO₂ and PaCO₂′ (from PETCO₂) tocalculate the remaining unknown value in the equation: {dot over (Q)}.

6.2 Advantages of Gedeon/Orr Method

-   -   6.2.1 The main advantage is that PvCO₂ does not need to be        calculated.    -   6.2.2 If the deadspace method is used to alter the {dot over        (V)}CO₂, then no change in breathing pattern is required.    -   6.2.3 The method can, theoretically, be fully automated. (In its        present commercial form, the size of the interposed deadspace        must still be altered manually).

6.3 Limitations of Gedeon/Orr Method

There are a number of limitations in applying Orr's method tospontaneously ventilating subjects.

-   -   6.3.1 In spontaneously breathing subjects, there is considerable        breath-to-breath variation in breath size and breathing        frequency resulting in a variation in PETCO₂. This poses        problems with respect to:        -   6.3.1.1 Identification of PETCO₂ and PETCO₂′. Long periods            of baseline measurements are needed in order to average the            end tidal values and identify the PETCO₂ to be used as the            baseline PETCO₂ in the differential Fick equation. The test            phase cannot last for more than about 30 seconds (due to            recirculation), typically 5 breaths. This leaves little time            to determine an accurate average PETCO₂′. During prolonged            baseline periods of observation, the condition of the            patient may change.        -   6.3.1.2 Calculation of {dot over (V)}CO₂. The variations in            PETCO₂ are related to variations in CO₂ elimination but the            relationship is not consistently reflected by the PETCO₂.            For example, assuming a subject breathing at rest with an            average resting breath size, an interposed smaller breath            may result in a lower PETCO₂ (due to a smaller contribution            of alveolar gas to the end tidal sample) but the CO₂            elimination from that breath will be diminished. Conversely,            a larger breath may result in the same PETCO₂ as the resting            breath but a greater volume of CO₂ is eliminated. The            commercial automated Gedeon method (NICO2, Novametrics            Medical Systems, Wallingford, Conn., U.S.A.) measures the            CO₂ eliminated breath-by-breath and therefore must            continuously average the values to measure {dot over            (V)}CO₂. The NICO2 method of calculating {dot over (V)}CO₂            by real-time integration of continuous measurements of flow            (with a pneumotachymeter) and CO₂ concentration (with a            capnograph) is fraught with potential for errors: a small            error in the integration of these two signals with different            time delays and time constants results in a much larger            error in the calculation of {dot over (V)}CO₂. In addition,            the greater the variability of the breath size and CO₂            concentrations, the longer the measurement time required for            an accurate estimate of {dot over (V)}CO₂.    -   6.3.2 Calculation of {dot over (V)}CO₂′. Stable transient        changes in {dot over (V)}CO₂ cannot be achieved in conscious        spontaneously ventilating patients:        -   6.3.2.1 Interposing a deadspace and raising their PCO₂ will            stimulate spontaneously breathing conscious subjects to            increase their {dot over (V)}E and {dot over (V)}CO₂ until            the PETCO₂ is restored.        -   6.3.2.2 Any change in breath size or frequency during a            period of breathing, (a normal occurrence in spontaneously            breathing people) changes the {dot over (V)}CO₂ during that            period. During inspiration, the deadspace gas is inhaled            first followed by fresh gas. A decrease in a breath size or            frequency diminishes the volume of fresh gas inhaled (and            thus the {dot over (V)}CO₂ for that breath). An increase in            breath size or frequency will result in an increased volume            of fresh gas delivered to the alveoli.        -   6.3.2.3 Each breath is an independent event and there is no            inherent method to compensate in a subsequent breath for            changes in {dot over (V)}CO₂ in the preceding breath. For            the method to be implemented, therefore, measures must be            taken to ensure that breath size and frequency stay            absolutely constant during the test. The NICO2 method has no            such built-in aspects. The method can therefore be used only            in patients who have precisely uniform breathing pattern            such as those that are paralysed and mechanically            ventilated.    -   6.3.3 Identification of PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient. The Gedeon and        Orr methods assume, or require the establishment of, a constant        gradient between the PETCO₂ and the PaCO₂. The variation in        PETCO₂ is due to variations of distribution of fresh gas to        various parts of the lung and any one breath does not reflect        the overall state of CO₂ exchange. On the other hand, such        variations are not reflected in the PaCO₂ which does reflect the        overall exchange of CO₂ and remains relatively constant.        Therefore, variations in PETCO₂ also confound the quantification        of the PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient under control conditions. Although        Orr provides a number of equations to correct for these        limitations, these equations are empirical and do not        necessarily apply to a particular patient. For example, they are        applied whether or not there is irregular breathing.

The PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient during the test phase when rebreathing occursis unknown. In the presence of large alveolar deadspace (as commonlyoccurs in many ill patients) the PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient will changeduring the rebreathing phase. Orr provides some equations to correct forthis but since the volume of the alveolar deadspace is unknown, theapplicability of the formula to any particular patient is unknown. Thisfurther diminishes the accuracy of calculating PaCO₂′.

The manoeuvres required to determine each of the terms required tocalculate {dot over (Q)} ({dot over (V)}CO₂, {dot over (V)}CO₂′, PETCO₂,PETCO₂′ and PaCO₂′) by the Orr/Gedeon/NICO2 method is awkward toimplement and prone to errors in measurement in the presence of anyvariation in breath amplitude or breathing frequency as occurs inspontaneously breathing humans or animals.

-   -   6.3.4 The parameter calculated by the differential Fick method        as practiced by Gedeon/Orr/Respironics is pulmonary blood flow        ({dot over (Q)}p). Pulmonary blood flow may be less than the        total cardiac output ({dot over (Q)}t) when, for example, some        of the {dot over (Q)} is shunted from the right side of the        circulation (superior vena cava, right atrium, right ventricle,        pulmonary artery) into the left side of the circulation without        passing through the lungs. This is referred to as “shunt” ({dot        over (Q)}s). About 5% of venous blood bypasses the lungs (termed        shunted blood) in healthy adults. Much larger shunts occur in        many medical conditions such as congenital heart disease,        surgical repair of some congenital heart diseases, pneumonia,        pulmonary edema, asthma, pulmonary atelectasis, adult        respiratory distress syndrome, obesity, pregnancy, liver disease        and others. The differential Fick method does not include        shunted blood in the calculation of {dot over (Q)} and other        empiric corrections must be made to account for it.

7.0 Kim-Rahn Farhi Method

7.1 Theory:

A unique maneuver was proposed by Rim, Rahn and Farhi, (J. Appl.Physiol. 21:1388-44. 1966) as a way to calculate the oxygenated mixedvenous PCO₂ (PvCO₂-oxy) as well as the true PvCO₂ and PaCO₂. It is basedon a paradigm of taking a breath of O₂, holding the breath, and exhalingslowly over a period equal to the recirculation time. Over this time ofexhalation, the CO₂ from the mixed venous blood will diffuse into thealveoli and O₂ will be absorbed. The low PO₂ in the red blood cells inthe mixed venous blood maximizes the volume of CO₂ that can be carriedby hemoglobin. Oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into the red bloodcells, raising the PO₂ and decreasing the affinity of hemoglobin for CO₂(Haldane effect). This releases CO₂ from the binding sites on thehemoglobin, making it available for diffusion into the alveoli. Withbreath holding, CO₂ will accumulate in the alveoli and the alveolar PCO₂(PACO₂) will rise until it no longer provides a gradient for diffusionfrom the blood. (This PCO₂ is known as the oxygenated mixed venous PCO₂(PvCO₂-oxy).) However, O₂ will continue to diffuse as long as the PAO₂is greater than PvO₂. Relatively little CO₂ need diffuse into thealveoli to reach PvCO₂-oxy compared to the volume of O₂ that isavailable for uptake before the PO₂ in the pulmonary capillary blood isin equilibrium with the PAO₂. In other words, the equilibration of CO₂in the alveoli with the mixed venous blood will occur well before thatof O₂.

Since both O₂ and CO₂ are contained in the same physical volume, thechanges in concentrations of each gas over a short period will reflectthe rates of flux of that gas over the same period. Therefore, over ashort period, the ratio of PCO₂ to PO₂ will reflect the respiratoryquotient, RQ (defined as the rate of CO₂ diffusion from the blood intothe alveoli divided by the rate of O₂ absorption into the blood from thealveoli). The RQ will initially be highest at the beginning of thebreath when the rate of CO₂ diffusion into the alveoli is maximal, andwill approach 0 when the alveolar PCO₂ equals PvCO₂-oxy. In vitrostudies have shown that PACO₂ equals the true PvCO₂ when the RQ=0.32 andequals PaCO₂ when RQ is equal to the patient's steady state RQ(typically ˜0.8).

7.2 Test Method

The method suggested for performing this test would require a subject totake a maximum breath of 100% O₂ and exhale very slowly and maximally.Over the course of this exhalation, expired gas is sampled and analyzedcontinuously for both PO₂ and PCO₂. PO₂ is graphed vs. PCO₂ and the RQis calculated from the instantaneous slope of tangents to the curves atvarious PCO₂ values as follows:

${RQ} = \frac{{slope} - \left( {{FeO}_{2}*{slope}} \right) - {FeCO}_{2}}{1 - \left( {{FeO}_{2}*{slope}} \right) - {FeCO}_{2}}$

These RQ values are then plotted against their respective PCO₂ datapoints resulting in a linear relation as illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5 ofT. S. Kin, H. Rahn, and L. E. Farhi cited above.

7.3 Advantages of the Method

-   -   7.3.1 This is the only known non-invasive method by which true        PvCO₂ can be calculated.    -   7.3.2 The method provides an estimate of PaCO₂ not based on        assuming a gradient between PETCO₂ and PaCO₂.    -   7.3.3 Data generated by the method can be used to calculate the        O₂ saturation of mixed venous blood.

7.4 Limitations of the Kim-Rahn-Farhi Breath-Hold Method

The main limitation of this method is that it requires the subject tohave a large lung capacity, hold his breath, and exhale over a prolongedduration. Patients with conditions such as pulmonary fibrosis,pneumonia, adult respiratory distress syndrome, chronic obstructive lungdisease, asthma, obesity, trauma, abdominal and chest surgery, mentalobtundation, confusion, pregnancy and many others have markedlimitations in their ability to take a large breath. Patients arerequired to cooperate with their duration of breath holding and rate ofexhalation. Many patients who are ill, exercising subjects, children andothers are unable to perform this satisfactorily. This method is veryawkward to automate or perform on ventilated patients.

8.0 Fisher Method

8.1 Theory

In a steady state, if a subject breathes in a PCO₂ equal PvCO₂-oxy,there will be no gradient for gas exchange and the difference in PCO₂between the inspired PCO₂ (PICO₂) and the expired PCO₂ (PECO₂) will be0. The volume of CO₂ diffusing into the alveoli will be maximal when thedifference between PICO₂ and PECO₂ is greatest, i.e., when the PICO₂ is0. Since the change in alveolar PCO₂ (PACO₂) varies directly as thevolume of CO₂ diffusing into the alveoli and the volume diffusing intothe alveoli varies directly as the gradient, then the difference betweenthe PICO₂ and PECO₂ will vary inversely as PICO₂. In other words,graphing the difference between the PECO₂ and PICO₂ (PECO₂−PICO₂) vs.FICO₂ will result in a straight line. Since subjects normally breatheroom air (PICO₂ equals 0 or O₂, the control PETCO₂ provides the firstpoint on the graph. When subjects inhale gas with any constant value ofPCO₂, the PETCO₂ at the end of an equilibration period not exceeding thetime for recirculation will provide a second data point which can beused to define the straight line which crosses the X axis where PICO₂equals PvCO₂-oxy.

8.2 Test Method:

The subject breathes via a non-rebreathing valve. The inspiratory limbis provided with either fresh gas or test gas with any PCO₂. To performa test, the inspired gas is switched from control gas to test gas forabout one recirculation time. The PICO2 of the test gas, the PETCO₂ justbefore the test (when PICO₂ was 0), and the PETCO₂ of the last breathbefore recirculation are used to calculate the PvCO₂-oxy.

8.3 Advantages of the Prior Disclosed Previous Fisher Method:

-   -   8.3.1 Any low inspired concentration of CO₂ such as 1% is        adequate to generate a data point; therefore the subject need        not get a large CO₂ load.    -   8.3.2 This Fisher method extrapolates to the PvCO₂-oxy from a        linear function and is therefore easier to calculate and more        accurate than with the partial rebreathing test in which data        points are fit to an exponential curve for extrapolation to an        asymptote.    -   8.3.3 The PICO₂ can be any value, so accurate mixtures of gases        are not required.    -   8.3.4 Assuming arterial PCO₂ values (PaCO₂) can be obtained from        arterial blood sample, for example, the method measures total        {dot over (Q)}, not just pulmonary blood flow.    -   8.3.5 The subject need not carry out any respiratory manoeuvre        such as breath holding or hyperventilation.    -   8.3.6 The method does not entail any rebreathing. Therefore, O₂        levels remain stable throughout the test and supplemental O₂ is        not needed.

8.4 Limitations of the Fisher Method

-   -   8.4.1 Uniform breath size cannot be guaranteed in spontaneously        breathing subjects. A change of breath size or breathing        frequency during the latter parts of the test phase will affect        the PETCO₂ and thus the calculation of PvCO₂-oxy. Furthermore,        as the subjects are inhaling gas that contains CO₂, they may be        stimulated to take larger or more frequent breaths.    -   8.4.2 The test requires an external source of CO₂. This must be        supplied via a tank of CO₂ and a gas blender or via a tank of        pre-mixed gas. If more than one test gas is required, then        arrangements to blend additional gases must be made or more than        one additional gas tank is required. This is inconvenient,        costly, and adds complexity to the test method and additional        bulk and weight to the test apparatus.    -   8.4.3 It is very complex to configure an automated system that        works for both spontaneously breathing and mechanically        ventilated patients.    -   8.4.4 There is no simple method to adapt currently available        ventilators, anaesthetic machines or breathing circuits to        provide a known and constant PICO₂ for a fixed number of        breaths.    -   8.4.5 The technique is difficult to adapt to anaesthetized        patients breathing via a circle circuit in which both the test        gas and the anaesthetic gases enter the circuit, especially in        the presence of a CO₂ absorber removing CO₂ from the circuit.

OBJECT OF THE INVENTION

It is therefore a primary object of this invention to provide animproved method and apparatus for the purpose of non-invasivelydetermining cardiac output ({dot over (Q)}) which may be utilized inventilated subjects, subjects who breath spontaneously or subjects whoare under controlled ventilation such as those undergoing surgicalprocedures under general anesthesia.

It is yet a further object of this invention to provide an improvedmethod and the apparatus related thereto for the purposes ofnon-invasively determining alveolar ventilation ({dot over (V)}A) andcalculating minute CO₂ production ({dot over (V)}CO₂), oxygenated mixedvenous PCO₂ (PvCO₂-oxy), true mixed venous PCO₂ (true PvCO₂), pulmonaryshunt, anatomical dead space, arterial PCO₂, at a greater accuracy thanprior known non-invasive methods and apparatuses would provide.

It is yet another object of the invention to provide a method ofnon-invasively calculating the oxygen saturation of mixed venous blood(SvO₂) which may be utilized to reveal heart failure of septic shock ina patient or the like.

It is yet a further object of this invention to provide an improvedmethod and the apparatus related thereto for the purposes of determining{dot over (Q)}, {dot over (V)}_(A), {dot over (V)}CO₂, PvCO₂-oxy, truePvCO₂, pulmonary shunt, and anatomical dead space in a non-invasive andfully automated manner.

Further and other objects of the invention will become apparent to thoseskilled in the art when considering the following summary of theinvention and the more detailed description of the preferred embodimentsillustrated herein.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention discloses a method and apparatus for calculating all ofthe {dot over (Q)} regardless of shunt, calculating the shunt,anatomical and alveolar deadspace, true mixed venous O₂ saturation, truemixed venous PCO₂, and PaCO₂. Furthermore the method and apparatus canbe used with ventilated subjects, subjects breathing spontaneously, evenwith marked variations in their tidal volume and breathing frequency, orsubjects undergoing surgery under anaesthesia. Subjects need not performany respiratory manoeuvre such as hyperventilation or breath holding.

According to one aspect of the invention there is provided an improvedmethod and apparatus for the purposes of determining {dot over (Q)} and{dot over (V)}A and calculating {dot over (V)}CO₂, PvCO₂-oxy, truePvCO₂, PaCO₂, pulmonary shunt, and anatomical dead space which increasesthe accuracy of these determinations in relation to known methods andapparatus and allows the full automation of the various methodsdisclosed herein for these determinations and calculations.

The New Method:

-   -   1. is insensitive to changes in minute ventilation ({dot over        (V)}E), tidal volume and/or respiratory frequency so that the        method can be carried out in spontaneously breathing subjects;    -   2. is simplified and less expensive to construct compared to        other non-invasive automated methods of performing the        differential Fick technique in that        -   a. it does not necessarily require any mechanically            activated valves to be actively engaged in the patient            circuit        -   b. does not require a pneumotachygraph to measure flows        -   c. does not require manual adjustment of an interposed dead            space (and thus can be totally automated);        -   d. The device will be the same for all sizes of adults (one            size fits all)    -   3. is compatible with a number of sequential gas delivery        breathing (SGDB) circuits. A SGDB circuit provides for the        sequential delivery of two gas sets to the lungs during        inhalation. A gas set is composed of one or more gases and        vapors. The first gas set (FGS) is provided from the beginning        of inhalation and can terminate at some time during inhalation        depending on the FGS flow and the {dot over (V)} E, at which        time inhalation continues with the delivery of the second gas        set (SGS). For the purposes of measuring {dot over (Q)} and the        other physiologic parameters described herein, it is preferred        that there is a distinct transition from FGS to SGS and there is        no mixing of the gas sets. A small degree of mixing of FGS with        SGS during the latter part of inhalation will reduce accuracy of        the measured and calculated results. Mathematical corrections        can be made to minimize effect of the mixing of FGS with SGS,        but cannot completely negate the effects in all circumstances.        Therefore, breathing circuits which separate the FGS from the        SGS are preferred.    -   4. the generation and presentation of data will be substantially        the same for controlled (mechanical) ventilation and rebreathing        so that the algorithms to perform the tests and analyze the data        can be substantially the same;    -   5. can institute an equilibrium steady state within one        recirculation time so that the value for PETCO₂ will be a true        measured value rather than one requiring multiple corrections        based on unsubstantiated assumptions;    -   6. will allow the measurement of a new steady state PETCO₂        within one recirculation time and thus actualize the assumption        underlying the Differential Fick approach that PvCO₂ is        unchanged;    -   7. Will minimize the effect of changes in tidal volume on the        alveolar ventilation.    -   8. maintain the alveolar PO₂ while making pulmonary blood flow        measurements;    -   9. make all calculations without a requirement to measure        breath-by-breath volumes of inspired and expired CO₂ or any        flows of tidal gases.

According to one aspect of the invention there is provided an improvedapparatus and method of identifying the alveolar ventilation ({dot over(V)}A), substantially as illustrated and described herein, preferablythe {dot over (V)}A so determined is utilized to calculate the {dot over(V)}CO₂ as {dot over (V)}A×FETCO₂, where FETCO₂ is the fractionalpressure of CO₂ in end tidal gas.

In one embodiment of the improved apparatus and method:

-   -   a) the Fisher approach is used to determine PvCO₂-oxy (or)    -   b) the Kim Rahn Farhi approach is used to determine        -   i) PvCO₂-oxy        -   ii) true PvCO₂        -   iii) PaCO₂        -   iv) true PvCO₂ plus the information from a pulse oximeter to            determine mixed venous hemoglobin O₂ saturation (or)    -   c) the differential CO₂ Fick technique of Gedeon and Orr is        utilized to determine any combination of        -   i) PvCO₂-oxy        -   ii) {dot over (Q)}        -   iii) {dot over (V)}CO₂        -   iv) {dot over (V)}CO₂′        -   v) PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient determined using the PaCO₂ as            determined by the Kim Rahn Farhi method from data collected            while reducing the {dot over (V)}CO₂ in order to perform the            Differential Fick method. (or)    -   d) {dot over (Q)} is determined via the Kim Rahn Farhi method        performed during partial rebreathing using a CO₂ Fick method        where the        -   i) {dot over (V)}CO₂ is calculated with or without the new            method as disclosed        -   ii) CaCO₂ and CvCO₂ are determined from the PaCO₂ and PvCO₂            respectively derived by the Kim Rahn Farhi method; (or)    -   e) calculation of the respiratory quotient (RQ) is determined as        PETCO₂/(PIO₂-PEO₂); (or)    -   f) PaCO₂ is determined directly via analysis of arterial blood        sample, arterialized venous sample, transcutaneous PCO₂        electrode, or other methods known to those skilled in the art.    -   wherein said apparatus or method may be utilized for very        accurate non-invasive determination of {dot over (Q)} and the        other indicated parameters.

According to yet another aspect of the invention there is provided animproved method of apparatus for determining {dot over (V)}A, {dot over(V)}CO₂ and calculating {dot over (Q)}, PvCO₂-oxy, true PvCO₂, PaCO₂,pulmonary shunt, anatomical dead space, and O₂ saturation in mixedvenous blood; which increases the accuracy of these determinations andcalculations in relation to known methods and apparatuses and allows forfull automation thereof if necessary by using automated means well knownto those skilled in the art, to:

-   -   i) induce a step change in {dot over (V)}CO₂ by providing a step        change in FGS flow to a SGDB circuit to create, with the control        data at rest, two sets of data for said determination utilizing        the differential Fick equations; (or)    -   ii) change the partial pressure of CO₂ in FGS of a SGDB circuit        to create, with the control data at rest, two sets of data for        said determination utilizing the Fisher or the differential Fick        equations; (or)    -   iii) change FGS flow or change the partial pressure of CO₂ in        FGS in a SGDB circuit to simulate complete or partial breath        holding and utilizing the Kim-Rahn-Farhi technique, wherein the        PETCO₂ of each breath is equivalent to a sequential alveolar        sample;

thereby providing more relevant data to calculate desired parameters.

In yet another embodiment of the invention a ventilation circuit andmethod is provided for using sequential delivery of gas sets in order toidentify the minute volume of gas entering the anatomical dead space andthe minute volume entering the alveoli and thereby available for gasexchange ({dot over (V)}A). Subsequently, setting FGS flow tosubstantially equal to or less than {dot over (V)}A substantiallycontrols {dot over (V)}A. A step reduction in {dot over (V)}A can thenbe induced by a step reduction in FGS flow, and resultant effects on endtidal gases such as CO₂ can be used in the to calculate {dot over (Q)}and other parameters as previously set out herein in the Background,disclosures and figures.

In yet another embodiment there is provided a method and apparatus ofdetermining {dot over (Q)} and the other parameters disclosed byutilizing any SGDB circuit for example, the circuits described andillustrated herein by reducing the FGS flow to said circuit orincreasing the PCO₂ of FGS to said circuit, independent of the breathingrate thereby allowing for calculations to be made via Differential Fickequations, and/or Fisher method, and/or the Kim-Rahn-Farhi method.

Preferably the method or apparatus previously described wherein the CO₂content as calculated from PvCO₂-oxy and true PvCO₂, may be utilized todetermine the O₂ saturation of mixed venous blood with known relationsbetween CO₂ content, O₂ saturation and PCO₂.

In one embodiment the method or apparatus disclosed may be utilizedwherein the arterial O₂ hemoglobin saturation, as determined by anon-invasive pulse oximeter, which makes the measurement by shininginfrared light through a finger, is utilized with the O₂ saturationvalue in the pulmonary artery as calculated by the Kim Rahn Farhimethod, to calculate the fraction of shunted blood (assuming fullyoxygenated blood in the end pulmonary capillary) thereof.

Preferably said method or apparatus is utilized to determine thefraction of shunted blood {dot over (Q)}s, which in conjunction withdetermination of total cardiac output {dot over (Q)}T (utilizing PaCO₂as determined by the Kim Rahn Farhi method, or available from analysisor arterial blood or determined by transcutaneous PCO₂ determination orotherwise known to those skilled in the art, as a term in the Fickequation) and pulmonary blood flow {dot over (Q)}_(p) (utilizing PETCO₂in the Fick equation) may be used to determine {dot over (Q)}_(s) thepulmonary output via the relationship.{dot over (Q)} _(s) ={dot over (Q)} _(t) −{dot over (Q)} _(p)

Preferably the method or apparatus disclosed wherein the O₂ saturationof haemoglobin in mixed venous blood (SaO₂), as determined therewith, isutilized to reveal a condition in a patient such as septic shock, orheart failure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 16: PCO₂ vs. time tracing during a rebreathing equilibrium test fordetermining oxygenated mixed venous PCO₂

FIG. 17: PCO₂ vs. time tracing during exponential method of findingoxygenated mixed venous PCO₂

FIG. 1 is a SGDB Circuit as taught by Fisher in U.S. Pat. No. 6,622,725referred to herein as the Fisher circuit.

FIG. 2 is similar to FIG. 1 wherein the reservoir bags are remote fromthe patient.

FIG. 9 is a new circuit for use with spontaneous ventilation.

FIG. 3 is similar to FIG. 9 wherein bypass limb, bypass valve, andpassive expiratory valve are replaced by an active expiratory valve.

FIG. 5 is similar to FIG. 1 wherein an active valve has been added tothe inspiratory limb to prevent mixing of FGS with SGS duringinhalation.

FIG. 10 is similar to FIG. 9 wherein an active valve has been added tothe inspiratory limb to prevent mixing of FGS with SGS duringinhalation.

FIG. 6 is similar to FIG. 1 wherein an active valve has replaced thepassive inspiratory valve.

FIG. 11 is similar to FIG. 9 wherein an active valve has replaced thepassive inspiratory valve.

FIG. 4 is similar to FIG. 3 wherein an active valve has replaced thepassive inspiratory valve.

FIG. 7 shows a modification of any of the circuits shown in FIGS. 1,2-6, 9-11 for use with a mechanically ventilated patient.

FIG. 8 shows the preferred embodiment modified for use on ventilatedpatients.

FIG. 13 is a modification of the above circuits to include co-axiallyarranged inspiratory and expiratory limbs between the valves and thepatient.

FIG. 14 shows the preferred embodiment of the cardiac output circuitwhere inspiratory and expiratory limbs are co-axially arranged with thecircuit of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 15 is a new circuit designed to allow measurement of cardiac outputwhile delivering anesthetics or removing volatile agents from a patient.

FIG. 12 shows a detail of a circuit design where the passive valves aresurrounded by the exhaled gas reservoir

FIG. 18: Apparatus for non-invasive cardiac output apparatus consistingof a breathing circuit, gas sources, gas flow controllers, gasconcentration sensors, and microprocessor capable of receiving andstoring analog and digital input from sensors and operators, storing andfollowing a decision tree, and generating output signals to a computerscreen and to flow controllers.

FIG. 19: Flow diagram describing automated sequence of events performedby the non-invasive cardiac output apparatus in order to automaticallygenerate and record data non-invasively and calculate {dot over (Q)} andother physiologic parameters.

FIG. 20 is a schematic of a standard anesthetic circle system hereinprovided as reference for discussion of disclosed system. Gas enteringthe anesthetic circuit consisting of oxygen, with the possible additionof air and/or nitrous oxide (N₂O), and possibly an anesthetic vapor suchas isoflurane, desflurane or sevoflurane enters the fresh gas port (6)at a constant and known flow. The gas concentrations entering thecircuit are set by the anesthesiologist. The patient inspires throughthe patient port (1) and draws fresh gas plus gas drawn from the gasreservoir bag (4) through the CO₂ absorber (5) up the inspiratory limb(8). During exhalation, the inspiratory valve (7) closes and the freshgas passes through the CO₂ absorber (5) towards the gas reservoir bag.Expired gas flows down the expiratory limb (2) displacing gas into thegas reservoir bag (4). When the reservoir bag is full, the pressure inthe circuit rises, opening the APL (airway pressure relief) valve (9),and the rest of the expired gas exits the circuit through the APL valve.Gas is sampled continuously at the patient port and is analyzed forconcentrations of constituent gases. The inspiratory (2) and expiratory(8) limbs consist of tubing (T).

FIG. 21: A detail of the computer screen output of an automated analysisof test finding {dot over (V)}_(A) by progressive reduction in SGF flowmethod in a subject is illustrated in FIG. 21. The figure illustratesthat progressive reduction of SGF (labelled “FGF” in the figure) resultsin a distinct inflection point when either PETCO₂ or PETO₂ is graphed asa function of SGF.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Detailed Description of the Apparatus

Referring now to FIG. 18, an apparatus is shown with the followingcomponents:

-   -   1) a breathing circuit (1800), said breathing circuit preferably        has the characteristic that, on exhalation by a subject (1801),        exhaled gas is kept separate from inhaled gas and on inhalation,        when VE is greater than the flow of a first gas set (FGS) into        the circuit, the subject inhales FGS gas first and then inhales        a second gas set (SGS) gas, preferably said SGS containing CO2        and where SGS may be mostly previously exhaled gas. Any SGDB        circuit can be used to greater or lesser benefit, according to        its characteristics. We provide below detailed descriptions of        several alternate configurations and outline their particular        advantages and drawbacks with respect to measuring Q and related        parameters outlined above.    -   2) a gas sample line (1802) leading to a gas analyzer (1804)        that monitors the concentration of gases, for example CO2, O2,        at the patient-circuit interface 28 and outputs preferably an        electric signal corresponding to the concentrations (for example        if the gases of interest are O2 and CO2, the “#17500 O2 and CO₂        analyzer set” (Vacumed, Ventura Calif., USA))    -   3) a precise gas flow controller (1806), preferably one that can        control the flow of one or more pressurized gases (such as        oxygen, air, CO2) singly or in combination, and that can be set        manually or via an automated system such as via machine        intelligence (for example, the Voltek gas flow controller by        Voltek Enterprises, Toronto, Canada);    -   4) a source of FGS (1810), preferably containing O2 and/or air        with or without CO2;    -   5) means (1812) to identify phase of breathing, for example        using electronic pressure sensors with tubing to sample        pressures at the patient-circuit interface (1814) or in other        locations in the circuit and generating electrical signal        corresponding to the sensed pressures. Such means will provide        electrical signal (1816). Phase of breathing can also be        determined from analysis of gas sensor output by machine        intelligence.    -   6) a computer or machine intelligence (1818) which records,        stores, analyzes signals from gas analyzer (204) and pressure        transducer (if present), contains a predetermined set of        instructions regarding the analysis of data such as calculation        of {dot over (Q)} and physiologic parameters, determination of        phase of respiration, display of information on a computer        screen, and control of gas flow controller (200) including the        timing, sequence and flow of gas.    -   7) wherein said device may be utilized for non-invasive        measurement and determination of {dot over (Q)} and other        parameters such as {dot over (V)}A, {dot over (V)}CO₂,        PvCO₂-oxy, true PvCO₂, PaCO₂, pulmonary shunt, and anatomical        dead space

Detailed Description of Breathing Circuits

FIG. 9 shows a breathing circuit which provides sequential delivery ofthe FGS followed by the SGS when {dot over (V)}E exceeds FGSF, with themanifold containing the valves and the FGS reservoir bag and theexpiratory gas reservoir bag remote from the patient. This improvementreduces the bulk of the patient manifold, and eliminates the possibilityof the SGS mixing with the FGS due to vigorous exhalation.

Referring to FIG. 9, Patient (38) breathes via a Y connector (40). Valve(31) is an inspiratory valve and valve (33) is an expiratory valve.Valve (35) is a bypass valve in the bypass limb (34) that bypasses theexpiratory valve (33) and has an opening pressure greater thaninspiratory valve (31). Valves (35, 33) may be close to or distal fromthe patient manifold as desired, as long as they are on the expiratorylimb (39). However, in the preferred embodiment, they are distal to thepatient to reduce the bulk of the patient manifold. Inspiratory valve(31) may be close to, or distal from, the patient manifold as desired,as long as it is on the inspiratory limb (32). In the preferredembodiment, it is distal to the patient as well. FGS enters the circuitvia port (30).

Function:

During exhalation, increased pressure in the circuit closes inspiratoryvalve (31) and bypass valve (35). Gas is directed into the exhalationlimb (39), past one-way valve (33) into the expiratory gas reservoir bag(36). Excess gas is vented via port (41) in expiratory gas reservoir bag(36). FGS enters via port (30) and fills FGS reservoir (37). Duringinhalation, inhalation valve (31) opens and FGS from the FGS reservoir(37) and FGS port (30) enter the inspiratory limb (32) and are deliveredto the patient. If FGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the FGS reservoir(37) empties before the end of the breath, and continued respiratoryeffort results in a further reduction in pressure in the circuit. Whenthe opening pressure of the bypass valve (35) is reached, it opens andgas from the expiratory gas reservoir (36) passes into the expiratorylimb (39) and makes up the balance of the breath with SGS.

Thus when FGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the subject inhales FGS,then SGS, and no contamination of FGS occurs.

FIG. 3 shows an alternate embodiment of the circuit illustrated in FIG.9 where the passive expiratory valve (33) and expiratory bypass limb(34), and expiratory limb bypass valve (3S) are replaced with a controlvalve that is triggered by the collapse of the inspiratory reservoir.Referring to FIG. 3, a control valve (401) is placed in the expiratorylimb (16) anywhere along its length between the patient port (10) andthe expiratory reservoir bag (18). When the patient's VE exceeds theFGSF during inspiration the reservoir bag (20) collapses. This isdetected by pressure sensing means (405) through port (406) as an acutereduction in pressure. Pressure sensing means (405) could be anelectronic pressure transducer capable of detecting changes 2 cm H₂Opressure, for example. Immediately afterwards, valve (401) is thenopened by control means (403), which could be an electronic signal foractivating a solenoid valve, for example, leading to depressurizationand collapse of a balloon valve, as is known to those skilled in theart, resulting in SGS is being inhaled for the balance of inhalation.During exhalation, patient exhales through expiratory tube (16) pastvalve (401) into the SGS reservoir (18). At end of exhalation, asdetected by pressure sensing means (405) as a reduction of pressure,valve (401) is closed by control means (403), which could be anelectronic signal for toggling a solenoid valve, for example, leading topressurization and inflation of a balloon valve, as is known to thoseskilled in the art.

While the circuits of FIG. 9 and FIG. 3 present the advantages over theFisher circuit of reducing the bulk of the patient manifold, andeliminating the possibility of the SGS mixing with the FGS due tovigorous exhalation, they still have the following drawback: When FGSreservoir (20, 37) is emptied and the patient is breathing SGS for thebalance of an inspiration, the circuit does not deliver SGS alone but amixture of SGS and FGS. The FGS continues to flow into the circuit andis drawn by inhalation past one-way inspiratory valve (31, 3) and allowsFGS gas to be inhaled from the inspiratory limb (32,14). To optimize thegeneration of data required to measure of cardiac output, it isnecessary to redirect the FGS into the FGS reservoir (37, 20) for thebalance of inhalation after the initial collapse of the FGS reservoir.This would prevent mixing of FGS with SGS during the period ofinhalation where the patient breathes SGS. This limitation of circuitsillustrated in FIGS. 9 and 3 with respect to measuring cardiac outputare shared with the Fisher circuit.

FIG. 5 shows an improved circuit that prevents contamination of the SGSby FGS when SGS is being delivered to the patient. Referring to FIG. 5.FGS control valve (400) is added to the inspiratory limb (14) at somepoint between the FGS port (12) and the inspiratory valve (11). Pop-offvalve (425) is connected to the inspiratory limb on the side of the FGScontrol valve (400) that is proximal to the inspiratory reservoir bag(425). During exhalation, gas passes from the patient port (10), throughthe expiratory one-way check valve (1S) down the expiratory limb (16)into the expiratory reservoir bag (18). Excess gas exits the expiratoryreservoir bag (18) at the opening (19) remote from the entrance. FGSenters the circuit at a constant flow via a fresh gas port (12). As theinspiratory one-way check valve (11) is closed during exhalation, thefresh gas accumulates in the fresh gas reservoir bag (20). Duringinhalation, FGS entering from the port (12) and the FGS reservoir (20)passes through the inspiratory valve (11) and enters the patient. If theFGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the FGS reservoir bag (20) collapses,as detected by pressure sensing means (405) connected to pressuresensing port (406). FGS control valve (400) is closed via valve controlmeans (403), and valve (17) in the bypass limb (13) opens, directingpreviously exhaled gas to the patient. When the FGS control valve (400)is closed, any FGSF entering the circuit during the balance ofinspiration is directed only to the FGS reservoir bag (20) and not tothe patient, who is receiving SGS for the balance of inspiration. FGScontrol valve (400) may be re-opened any time from the beginning ofexpiration to just before the next inspiration. FGS control valve (400)may be any type of valve, and is preferably an active valve such as aballoon valve, known to those skilled in the art, that can be controlledby automated means. The pop-off valve (425) opens when the reservoir bag(20) is full to prevent the reservoir bag (20) from overfilling.

The circuit illustrated in FIG. 10 is similar to that in FIG. 9 but hasthe addition of a FGS control valve (400), together with pressuresensing means (405) and port (406), and valve control means (403), addedto the inspiratory limb of the circuit (32) distal to the one-wayinspiratory valve (31) and proximal to the FGS inflow port (30).Similarly, a FGS control valve, together with pressure sensing means andport, and valve control means, may be added to the inspiratory limb (14)of the circuit illustrated in FIG. 3 positioned distal to the one-wayinspiratory valve (31) and proximal to the FGS inflow port (12) toachieve the same result, namely, prevention of contamination of SGS byFGS when {dot over (V)}E exceeds FGSF and the FGSF reservoir bag isemptied.

We present two additional circuits that are configured by adding FGScontrol valve (400) together with pressure sensing means (405) and port(406), and valve control means (403), to the Fisher circuit and thecircuit illustrated in FIG. 9 and removing the passive one wayinspiratory valve (11, 31), as shown in FIGS. 6 and 11 respectively.These circuits function identically to those illustrated in FIGS. 5 and10 with respect to complete separation of FGS and SGS during inhalation.In such a circuit, during inspiration, FGS control valve (400) is openuntil FGSF reservoir bag (20, 37) is emptied, then it is closed so thatany additional FGSF entering the circuit during the balance ofinspiration is directed only to the reservoir bag (20) and not to thepatient. As the patient continues to inspire, bypass valve (17, 35)opens allowing the patient to inhale SGS for the balance of inspiration.

Another embodiment of each of the circuits whereby the valves can beremote from the patient without loss of sequential delivery of FGS andSGS, such as those illustrated in FIGS. 9, 3, 10, 11, 4, 8, is thereplacement of separate inspiratory limbs and expiratory limbs withco-axially arranged inspiratory and expiratory limbs as shown in FIG.13. FIG. 14 shows the preferred embodiment of the invention: The circuitvalves are configured as in the circuit illustrated in FIG. 10 with theimprovement of co-axially arranged inspiratory (59) and expiratory (51)limbs. The limbs (51, 59) are co-axial so that one limb is containedwithin the other for some length of tubing, with the limbs separating atsome point along its length, such that the expiratory limb (51) leads tothe exhaled gas reservoir (54) and the inspiratory limb (59) leads tothe FGS reservoir (56). This has two important advantages over thecircuit of FIG. 9:

-   -   1. A single tube is connected to the patient interface making it        easier to manage sick patients    -   2. The heat contained in the expiratory limb (51) warms the FGS        entering through the inspiratory limb (59).    -   3. If the inner tube is of a material that allows moisture to        pass through it but not gas, such as Nation, will promote        moisture exchange as well, so that FGS will become slightly        moisturized and more comfortable for the patient to breathe if        the SGS is moist. It should be understood that co-axial tubing        may be used with any of the SGDB circuits described herein.

DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

Referring to FIG. 14, Patient port (50) opens directly to theinspiratory limb (59) and expiratory limb (51) without a Y connector,where the limbs are arranged coaxially. Valve (31) is an inspiratoryvalve and valve (33) is an expiratory valve. Valve (35) is a bypassvalve in the bypass limb (34) that bypasses the expiratory valve (33)and has an opening pressure greater than inspiratory valve (31). Valves(35, 33) are preferably distal from the patient on the expiratory limb(51) to reduce the bulk of the patient interface. Inspiratory valve (31)is also preferably distal from, the patient on the inspiratory limb(59). FGS enters the circuit via port (30). FGS control valve (400) ison the inspiratory limb (59) between port (30) and inspiratory valve(31). FGS reservoir bag (37) is connected to inspiratory limb (59)distal to the patient, past port (37). SGS reservoir bag (36) is distalto the patient on the expiratory limb (51) past expiratory valve (33)and bypass valve (35). Excess expiratory gas vents to the atmosphere viaport (41). Pressure sensing means (405) is connected to pressure sensingport (406) which is connected to the patient port (50), and valvecontrol means (403). Pressure sensing port (406) may be connected to theco-axial inspiratory (59) and expiratory limb arrangement (51) anywherealong its length between the inspiratory valve (31) and the patient port(50) or between the expiratory valve (33) and the patient. Pop-off valve(425) is connected to the inspiratory limb on the side of the FGScontrol valve (400) that is proximal to the inspiratory reservoir bag(425).

Function:

During exhalation, increased pressure in the circuit closes inspiratoryvalve (31) and bypass valve (35). Gas is directed into the exhalationlimb (51), past one-way valve (33) into the expiratory gas reservoir bag(36). Excess gas is vented via port (41) in expiratory gas reservoir bag(36). FGS enters via port (30) and fills FGS reservoir (37). Duringinhalation, inhalation valve (31) opens and FGS from the FGS reservoir(37) and FGS port (30) enter the inspiratory limb (59) and are deliveredto the patient. If FGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the FGS reservoir(37) empties before the end of the breath, and continued respiratoryeffort results in a further reduction in pressure in the circuit. Whenthe opening pressure of the bypass valve (35) is reached, it opens andgas from the expiratory gas reservoir (36) passes into the expiratorylimb (39) and makes up the balance of the breath with SGS. The emptyingof FGS reservoir bag (37) is detected by pressure sensing means (405)such as an electronic pressure transducer, known to those skilled in theart, connected to pressure sensing port (406), and FGS control valve(400) such as a balloon valve known to those skilled in the art, isclosed via valve control means (403) such as access to gas pressurecontrolled by an electronically toggled solenoid valve known to thoseskilled in the art. When the FGS control valve (400) is closed, anyadditional FGSF entering the circuit during the balance of inspirationis directed only to the FGS reservoir bag (20) and not to the patient,who is inhaling only SGS for the balance of inspiration. FGS controlvalve (400) may be re-opened any time from the beginning of expiration,as sensed by the reverse of pressure by the pressure sensing means(405), to just before the next inspiration, also sensed by pressurechanges in the breathing circuit. Pop-off valve (425) prevents the FGSreservoir bag (20) from overfilling when FGS exceeds {dot over (V)}E.

Thus when FGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the subject inhales FGS,then SGS, and no contamination of SGS with FGS occurs.

Use of Circuits for Ventilated Patients

Any of the SGDB circuits disclosed herein as well as the Fisher circuitcan be used for a patient under controlled ventilation by enclosing theFGS reservoir (20) and exhaled gas reservoir (18) within a rigidcontainer (21) with exit ports for the inspiratory limb of the circuit(24) and expiratory limb of the circuit (25) and port for attachment toa patient interface of a ventilator (22) as illustrated in FIG. 7. InFIG. 7, the inspiratory limb (500) represents the inspiratory limb ofany of the SGDB circuits herein described, and expiratory limb (501)corresponds to the expiratory limb of any of the SGDB circuits hereindescribed. The FGS reservoir bag (20) and expiratory gas reservoir bag(18) are enclosed in a rigid air-tight container such that theinspiratory limb (500) enters the container via port (24) and expiratorylimb (501) enters the container via port (25) such that the junctions ofthe outside of the limbs form an air-tight seal with the inside surfaceof the ports. A further port (22) is provided for attachment of the Ypiece of any ventilator (23). Detachment from the ventilator allows thecircuit to be used with a spontaneously breathing patient. During theinspiratory phase of the ventilator, the pressure inside the container(21) rises putting the contents of the FGS reservoir bag (20) and theexpiratory gas reservoir bag (18) under the same pressure. Since theopening pressure of the inspiratory valve is less than that of thebypass valve for circuits using passive bypass valves (for example thoseshown in FIGS. 1, 2, 9, 11, 10, 6, and 5, the FGS reservoir (20) will beemptied preferentially. When the FGS reservoir (20) is empty, thepressure in the container (21) and inside the expiratory gas reservoir(18) will open the bypass valve (35, 17, 206) and begin emptying exhaledgas reservoir (18) delivering SGS to the patient. For circuits using anactively engaged control valve (400) in the inspiratory limb of thecircuit, a valve opening detection means (407) such as an electroniccircuit that is broken by the opening of the valve when the valve ispart of a closed electronic circuit, not shown, detects opening of theone way valve (35, 17, 206) in the exhalation bypass limb. The FGScontrol valve (400) is then closed, directing FGS into the FGS reservoirbag until the collapse of the FGS reservoir during the next inspiratoryphase.

During the exhalation phase of the ventilator, the ventilator'sexpiratory valve is opened and contents of the container (21) are openedto atmospheric pressure, allowing the patient to exhale into theexpiratory gas reservoir (18) and the FGS to flow into the FGS reservoirbag (20). Thus, the FGS and SGS are inhaled sequentially duringinhalation with controlled ventilation without mixing of FGS with SGS atany time.

FIG. 8 shows the ventilator configuration described above as used withthe preferred circuit shown in FIG. 14. This is the preferred embodimentfor ventilated patients.

The primary difference between the standard anesthetic circle circuit ofthe prior art (FIG. 20) and the circuits disclosed herein is that withthe circuits disclosed herein, both a SGS reservoir (18) and a FGSreservoir (20) are in the rigid box. With the valve configurationsdisclosed herein, there will be sequential delivery of the FGS, then theSGS, when {dot over (V)}E exceeds the FGSF. This does not occur with thestandard anesthetic circle circuit, even if the CO2 absorber is removedfrom the circuit.

Circuit for Calculation of {dot over (Q)} and Related PhysiologicParameters while Modifying Second Gas Set

FIG. 15 shows the preferred circuit for measuring cardiac output whilemaintaining the ability to modify the SGS. The circuit consists of thefollowing components:

200 patient port 201 three-port connector 202 expiratory limb 203expiratory valve 204 canister on bypass conduit that may be switched tobe empty, contain CO₂ absorbing crystals, zeolyte, charcoal or similarsubstance that filters anesthetic agents, or hopcalite for filteringcarbon monoxide 205 bypass conduit. 206 one-way bypass valve withopening pressure slightly greater than that of the inspiratory valve(219) 207 SGS reservoir bag 208 port in rigid container for entrance ofexpiratory limb of circuit in an air- tight manner 209 exit port forexpired gas from expired gas reservoir 210 a 2-way manual valve that canbe turned so that the gas in the rigid box (216) is continuous witheither the ventilator Y piece (211) or the manual ventilation assemblyconsisting of ventilating bag (212) and APL valve (213) 211 theventilator Y piece 212 the ventilation bag 213 APL valve 214 ventilationport in rigid box (216) 215 FGS reservoir 216 rigid box 217 port inrigid container for entrance of inspiratory limb of circuit (220) in anair-tight manner 218 FGS inlet port 219 inspiratory valve 220inspiratory limb 221 bypass limb proximal to canister (204) 400 activeFGS Control valve 403 valve control means 407 bypass valve openingsensing means

Function of the Circuit as an Anesthetic Circuit:

For spontaneous ventilation, 3-way valve (210) is open between rigidcontainer (216) and manual ventilation assembly consisting ofventilation bag (212) and APL valve (213). When the patient exhales,increased pressure in the circuit closes inspiratory valve (219) andbypass valve (206). Exhaled gas is directed into the exhalation limb(202), past one-way valve (203) into the expiratory reservoir bag (207).FGS enters via port (218) and fills the FGS reservoir (215). Duringinhalation, inhalation valve (219) opens and FGS from the FGS reservoir(215) and FGS port (218) enter the inspiratory limb (220) and aredelivered to patient. If FGSF is less than {dot over (V)}E, the FGSreservoir (215) empties before the end of the breath; continuedrespiratory effort results in a further reduction in pressure in thecircuit. When the opening pressure of the bypass valve (206) isexceeded, it opens and gas from the expiratory gas reservoir (207)passes through the canister (204) into the rebreathing limb (221) andmakes up the balance of the breath with SGS. The opening of bypass valve(206) is detected by valve opening sensing means (407) signals are sentto close FGS control valve (400) by activating valve control means(403). When the FGS control valve (400) is closed, any additional FGSFentering the circuit during the balance of inspiration is directed onlyto the FGS reservoir bag (215) and not to the patient. When valve (400)is closed patient receives only SGS for the balance of inspiration. FGScontrol valve (400) may be re-opened any time from the beginning ofexpiration to just before the next inspiration. Phase of ventilation issensed by sensor (407).

For the purposes of functioning as an anesthetic delivery circuit, partof the FGS entering the circuit would be the anesthetic vapor, forexample Desflurane, and the canister (204) would contain CO₂ absorbentmaterial. The SGS passes through the canister (204) but still containsexpired O₂ and anesthetic, which can both be safely rebreathed by thepatient. In this respect, the circuit in FIG. 15 functions like a circleanesthetic circuit in which the FGSF containing O₂ and anesthetic can bereduced to match the consumption or absorption by the patient. However,by bypassing the canister (204), the circuit can be used for measuringcardiac output.

If the canister (204) is filled with hopcalite it can be used to removecarbon monoxide from the patient, since the SGS still contains expiredO₂ and CO₂. If the canister (204) is filled with zeolite it can be usedto remove volatile agents such as anesthetics from the patient.

Advantages of Circuit Over Previous Art:

-   -   1) It is comparable to the circle anesthesia circuit with        respect to efficiency of delivery of anesthesia, and ability to        conduct anesthesia with spontaneous ventilation as well as        controlled ventilation.    -   2) It is often important to measure tidal volume and VE during        anesthesia. With a circle circuit, a pneumotach with attached        tubing and cables must be placed at the patient interface,        increasing the dead-space, bulk and clutter at the head of the        patient. With our circuit, the pneumotach (or a spirometer if        the patient is breathing spontaneously) can be placed at port        (214) and thus remote from the patient.    -   3) Sasano (Anesth Analg 2001; 93:1188-1191) taught a circuit        that can be used to accelerate the elimination of anesthesia.        However that circuit required additional devices such as an        external source of gas (reserve gas), a demand regulator,        self-inflating bag or other manual ventilating device, 3-way        stopcock and additional tubing. Furthermore, Sasano did not        disclose a method whereby mechanical ventilation can be used. In        fact it appears that it cannot be used—patients must be        ventilated by hand for that method. With the apparatus and        method disclosed herein, there is no requirement for an        additional external source of gas or demand regulator;    -   4) the patient can be ventilated with the ventilation bag (212)        already on the circuit or the circuit ventilator, or any        ventilator; no other tubing or devices are required.    -   5) Circle circuits cannot deliver FGS and then SGS sequentially.        Such control is required to make physiological measurements such        as cardiac output during anesthesia.

With the circuit of FIG. 15, if the canister (204) is bypassed, thecircuit becomes the equivalent of the one described in FIG. 9 with theaddition of the ventilator apparatus shown in FIG. 7. With the circuitof FIG. 15, box (216) could be opened to atmosphere instead of connectedto a ventilator, and the circuit could be used with spontaneouslybreathing patients for measuring cardiac output while modifying SGS.

It should be recognized to those skilled in the art that variousembodiments of the invention disclosed in this patent application arepossible without departing from the scope including, but not limited to:

-   -   a) using multiple inspiratory and expiratory limbs in        combination provided that:        -   i) the inspiratory and expiratory limbs are kept separate            except at a single point prior to reaching the patient where            they are joined        -   ii) each limb has the corresponding valves as in the            arrangement above, and        -   iii) the valves have the same relative pressures so as to            keep the inspired gas delivery sequential as discussed            above.    -   b) using active valves, for example electronic, solenoid, or        balloon valves, instead of passive valves, provided said valves        are capable of occluding the limbs, and means is provided for        triggering and controlling said active valves. The advantage of        active valves is more precise control. The disadvantage is that        they are more costly.    -   c) replacing reservoir bags with extended tubes or other means        for holding gases    -   d) surrounding valves in exhalation limb and/or in the        inspiratory limb of circuit with the exhaled gas reservoir        causing them to be surrounded by warm exhaled air and prevent        freezing and sticking of valves in cold environments.    -   e) Changing the composition of FGS and SGS to change alveolar        concentrations of gases other than CO₂, for example O₂. By        analogy to CO2, with respect to O₂: alveolar PO₂ is determined        by FGS flow and the PO₂ of FGS. When PO₂ of SGS is the same as        the PO₂ in the alveoli, inhaling SGS does not change flux of O₂        in the alveoli. Therefore, those skilled in the art can arrange        the partial pressure of component gases in FGS and SGS and the        flows of FGS such that they can achieve any alveolar        concentration of component gases independent of {dot over (V)}E,        as long as {dot over (V)}E exceeds sufficiently flow of FGS.

As many changes can be made to the various embodiments of the inventionwithout departing from the scope thereof; it is intended that all mattercontained herein be interpreted as illustrative of the invention but notin a limiting sense.

To clarify the function of the automated cardiac output device, we willcontrast it to a standard anaesthetic machine which has the sameconfigureation of listed components.

-   -   1) The preferred SGDB circuits we describe differ from any        anaesthetic circuit. The SGDB circuit first provides the FGS,        then the SGS. This allows the circuit to compensate for changes        in CO₂ elimination on any particular breath. For example, during        a small breath, the unused FGS remains in the FGS reservoir and        is available to provide the exact additional {dot over (V)}A for        each gas in the set when a larger breath is taken or frequency        of breathing increases subsequently. As a result, changes in        {dot over (V)}CO₂ can be instituted independent of breathing        pattern.    -   2) Anesthetic machines do not automatically alter the fresh gas        flows. Fresh gas flows are manually controlled by the        anesthesiologist.    -   3) Anesthetic machines do not calculate {dot over (V)}A and        cannot calculate {dot over (V)}CO₂, and {dot over (Q)}.    -   4) Anesthetic machines cannot generate the data required to make        the calculations for {dot over (Q)} and its associated        parameters because the circuit is inappropriate and the gas        flows are not configured to be controlled by a computer.    -   5) The flowmeters on commonly used anesthetic machines are too        imprecise and inaccurate to perform these tests and        calculations. There is no need for such precision and accuracy        of flow for routine clinical anesthetic care.

9.0 Method of generating data required to make calculations of {dot over(Q)} and related physiologic parameters (see FIG. 19):

Cardiac Output can be measured in several ways according to the methodsand apparatus disclosed herein. These include:

9.1 Set-Up Phase

-   -   9.1.1 Set Flow of FGS>{dot over (V)}E    -   9.1.2 Access default values    -   9.1.3 Check pressure sensor or PCO₂ sensor during inhalation. If        fresh gas reservoir collapsed or CO₂ is detected during        inhalation, increase FGS flow until the reservoir until        reservoir does not collapse fully and no CO₂ is detected during        inhalation    -   9.1.4 Identify PETCO₂ from the CO₂ gas analyzer

9.2 Find {dot over (V)}A Via One of Two Methods:

-   -   9.2.1 Calculate {dot over (V)}A by inducing two reductions in        FGS flow below {dot over (V)}A without first identifying {dot        over (V)}A by following the following steps:        -   9.2.1.1 Calculate a preliminary minimum {dot over (V)}A for            the subject based on body weight, temperature, sex and other            parameters known to those skilled in the art.        -   9.2.1.2 Provide luxuriant FGS flow greater than the            patient's resting {dot over (V)}E until steady state PETCO₂,            is reached        -   9.2.1.3 Impose a VA by setting FGS Flow below assumed {dot            over (V)}A, to {dot over (V)}A^(x) preferably just below the            calculated preliminary {dot over (V)}A, for a time less than            or equal to a recirculation time, and measure PETCO₂ ^(x),            the end tidal CO₂ concentration during equilibrium if an            equilibrium end tidal value is reached within a            recirculation time, otherwise it is the equilibrium value of            end tidal CO₂ as extrapolated from the exponential rise in            end tidal CO₂ values within the recirculation time.        -   9.2.1.4 Set FGS flow above V_(E) until steady state PETCO₂            is reached as identified by a less than a threshold change            in PETCO₂ over a designated time period. The actual            thresholds and time periods are user defined according to            the circumstances of the test and can be determined by those            skilled in the art.        -   9.2.1.5 Impose a {dot over (V)}A by setting FGS Flow below            assumed {dot over (V)}A, to {dot over (V)}A^(y) where {dot            over (V)}A^(y) is less than calculated preliminary minimum            {dot over (V)}A and not equal to {dot over (V)}A^(x), for a            time approximately equal to a recirculation time, about 30 s            at rest. Measure PETCO₂ ^(x), the end tidal CO₂            concentration during equilibrium if an equilibrium end tidal            value is reached within a recirculation time, otherwise it            is the equilibrium value of end tidal CO₂ as extrapolated            from the exponential rise in end tidal CO₂ values within the            recirculation time.        -   9.2.1.6 On a graph of PETCO₂ vs FGS flow, plot the points            (PETCO₂ ^(y), {dot over (V)}A^(y)) and (PETCO₂ ^(x), {dot            over (V)}A^(x)). Extrapolate the line formed by connecting            these two point to intersect a horizontal line at            PETCO₂=resting PETCO₂. The FGS flow at the intersection            point is determined to be {dot over (V)}A.    -   9.2.2 Progressive Reduction of FGS flow method of finding {dot        over (V)}A:        -   9.2.2.1 Use FGS that preferably has no CO₂        -   9.2.2.2 Wait for steady state as indicated by less than a            threshold change in PETCO₂ over a designated time period.            The actual thresholds and time periods are user defined            according to the circumstances of the test and can be            determined by those skilled in the art.        -   9.2.2.3 When in steady state, reduce FGS flow by a small            fixed flow, for example 0.1 L/min, preferably at regular            intervals of time or after each breath. Alternate flow            reduction rates could be used, and the reduction need not be            linear in time.        -   9.2.2.4 When PETCO₂ begins to rise above a threshold value            which is approximately the mean steady state PETCO₂,            continue the reduction in the FGS flow for a time            approximately equal to one recirculation time.        -   9.2.2.5 After approximately one recirculation time, usually            about 30 s, raise FGS flow above resting {dot over (V)}E. A            relation of PETCO₂ vs FGS flow is calculated and two lines            of best fit are calculated, one for the set of steady state            PETCO₂ values, and one for the set of raised PETCO₂ values            above the mean of the steady state values. The FGS flow            corresponding to the intersection of said lines corresponds            to {dot over (V)}A. FIG. 21 illustrates that progressive            reduction of SGF (labelled “FGF” in the figure) results in a            distinct inflection point when either PETCO₂ or PETO₂ is            graphed as a function of SGF. We define the SGF            corresponding to this inflection point as equal to {dot over            (V)}A.        -   9.2.2.6 These two methods of finding {dot over (V)}A are            physiologically equivalent and one may have some advantages            over the other in particular clinical or research            circumstances. The Progressive Reduction method should be            contrasted with the method for calculating {dot over (V)}A            taught by Preiss et al. (Canadian Patent Application            2346517). In that method, while fresh gas flow into a            sequential gas delivery circuit was reduced stepwise, after            each reduction, the subject was observed for several breaths            looking for an exponential rise in PETCO₂. The Preiss method            requires continued breathing at each fresh gas flow looking            for development of a new steady when fresh gas flow falls            below {dot over (V)}A. This process is very time consuming            and is unlikely to be tolerated by most patients. If, in the            attempt to shorten the time for finding the fresh gas flow            below {dot over (V)}A the fresh gas flow reduction are            large, resolution of critical fresh gas flow is lost. If the            steps are small, when the fresh gas flow is just barely less            than {dot over (V)}A, it will be difficult to discern the            small rise in PETCO₂ from the normal variation in PETCO₂.            The progressive breath-by-breath reduction in FGS flow            disclosed herein results in a rapid linear rise in PETCO₂            and fall in PETO₂, both of which can be used to identify the            FGS flow corresponding to {dot over (V)}A as illustrated in            FIG. 21.

9.3 Calculations with the Differential Fick Equation

There are two methods of calculating cardiac output with theDifferential Fick equation. (It is understood that the general methodsare disclosed without the details well known to those skilled in the artof the multiple standard corrections for temperature, moisture,barometric pressure and the like):

-   -   9.3.1 Find {dot over (V)}A by the Progressive Reduction of FGS        flow method of finding {dot over (V)}A:        -   9.3.1.1 Find {dot over (V)}A        -   9.3.1.2 Set FGS Flow={dot over (V)}A and calculate {dot over            (V)}CO₂ using the equation {dot over (V)}CO₂={dot over            (V)}A×FETCO₂.        -   9.3.1.3 Impose a transient step change in {dot over (V)}A to            {dot over (V)}A′ for a time approximately equal to a            recirculation time, about 30 s at rest, by changing FGS flow            to a value below {dot over (V)}A. To fully automate the            process, select a {dot over (V)}A′ that will be below the            {dot over (V)}A. Calculate {dot over (V)}CO₂′={dot over            (V)}A′×FETCO₂′. Where FETCO₂′ is the fractional end tidal            CO₂ concentration during equilibrium if an equilibrium end            tidal value is reached within a recirculation time,            otherwise it is the equilibrium value of end tidal CO₂ as            extrapolated from the exponential rise in end tidal CO₂            values within the recirculation time.        -   9.3.1.4 Calculate {dot over (Q)} according to the            differential Fick equation using {dot over (V)}CO₂, {dot            over (V)}CO₂′, and CCO₂ and CCO₂′ where CCO2 and CCO₂′ are            the contents of CO₂ of end capillary blood as calculated            from PETCO₂, and PETCO₂′ using known relationships between            PETCO₂, and other characteristics related to the blood such            as hemoglobin concentration, temperature oxygen partial            pressure and other parameters that are accessible or can be            used as default values by those skilled in the art.        -   9.3.1.5 Calculate {dot over (Q)} according to the            differential Fick equation using {dot over (V)}CO₂ and            PETCO₂ data from steady state phase and step change phase            and the PaCO₂ from the Kim Rahn Farhi method. This allows            the identification of the PETCO₂—PaCO2 gradient without an            arterial blood sample.    -   9.3.2 Generate required data by inducing two reductions in FGS        flow below {dot over (V)}A without first identifying {dot over        (V)}A by following the following steps:        -   9.3.2.1 Calculate a preliminary minimum {dot over (V)}A for            the subject based on body weight, temperature, sex and other            parameters known to those skilled in the art.        -   9.3.2.2 Provide luxuriant FGS flow greater than the            patient's resting {dot over (V)}E until steady state PETCO₂            is reached        -   9.3.2.3 Impose a {dot over (V)}A and hence a {dot over            (V)}CO₂ by setting FGS Flow below preliminary calculated            {dot over (V)}A, to {dot over (V)}A^(x) preferably just            below the preliminarily calculated {dot over (V)}A, for a            time less than or equal to a recirculation time, and            calculate {dot over (V)}CO₂ ^(x) using the equation {dot            over (V)}CO₂ ^(x)={dot over (V)}A^(x)×FETCO₂ ^(x) where            FETCO₂ is the fractional end tidal CO₂ concentration during            equilibrium if an equilibrium end tidal value is reached            within a recirculation time, otherwise it is the equilibrium            value of end tidal CO₂ as extrapolated from the exponential            rise in end tidal CO₂ values within the recirculation time.        -   9.3.2.4 Set FGS flow above V_(E) until steady state PETCO₂            is reached as identified by a less than a threshold change            in PETCO₂ over a designated time period. The actual            thresholds and time periods are user defined according to            the circumstances of the test and can be determined by those            skilled in the art.        -   9.3.2.5 Impose a transient step change in {dot over (V)}A to            {dot over (V)}A^(y) where {dot over (V)}A^(y) is less than            calculated {dot over (V)}A and not equal to {dot over            (V)}A^(x), for a time approximately equal to a recirculation            time, about 30 s at rest. Calculate {dot over (V)}CO₂            ^(y)={dot over (V)}A^(y)×FETCO₂ ^(y). FETCO₂ ^(y) is the end            tidal CO₂ concentration during equilibrium if an equilibrium            end tidal value is reached within a recirculation time,            otherwise it is the equilibrium value of end tidal CO₂ as            extrapolated from the exponential rise in end tidal CO₂            values within the recirculation time.        -   9.3.2.6 Calculate {dot over (Q)} according to the            differential Fick equation using {dot over (V)}CO₂ ^(x),            {dot over (V)}CO₂ ^(y), and and CCO₂ ^(x) and CCO₂ ^(y)            where CCO₂ ^(c) and CCO₂ ^(y) are the contents of CO₂ of end            capillary blood as calculated from PETCO₂ ^(x), and PETCO₂            ^(y) using known relationships between PETCO₂, and other            characteristics related to the blood such as hemoglobin            concentration, temperature oxygen partial pressure and other            parameters that are accessible or can be used as default            values by those skilled in the art.        -   9.3.2.7 Calculate {dot over (Q)} according to the            differential Fick equation using {dot over (V)}CO₂ and            PETCO₂ data from steady state phase and step change phase            and the PaCO₂ from the Kim Rahn Farhi method to identify the            PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient. This allows the identification of the            PETCO₂—PaCO₂ gradient without an arterial blood sample.

Difference between this method and previous methods to perform thedifferential Fick:

-   -   (a) With the new method, the decrease in {dot over (V)}CO₂ is        performed by reducing the FGF to a SGDB circuit as opposed to        insertion of a deadspace at the patient-circuit interface. As a        result, if the subject increases his breathing rate or breath        size, there is no change in {dot over (V)}CO₂ and the        calculations via the differential Fick equation are not        affected.    -   (b) The {dot over (V)}CO₂ is known using the {dot over (V)}A        (identified by one of the new or the previously disclosed        method) and the PETCO₂, two robust and highly reliable measures.        This is unlike the need for a pneumotachymeter and the        error-prone breath-by-breath analysis of {dot over (V)}CO₂        required by previous art.    -   (c) {dot over (V)}A is not identified with the previous        differential Fick methods.    -   (d) The PETCO₂ to PaCO₂ gradient is calculated from two        independently derived values in the same subject. In the        previous art, this gradient is calculated from empirical        formulae derived from averaged values and do not necessarily        apply to the subject.

Therefore our method provides more accurate values for {dot over(V)}CO₂, {dot over (V)}, CO₂′ and PaCO₂ than the previous art.

9.4 Kim-Rahn-Farhi

-   -   9.4.1 A period of reduced FGS flow simulates complete or partial        breath holding. The PETCO₂ of each breath is equivalent to a        sequential alveolar sample in the KRF prolonged exhalation        method. The substitution of sequential PETCO₂ values for        sequential samples from a single exhalation is used to calculate        true PvCO₂, PvCO₂-oxy, PaCO₂ and hemoglobin O₂ saturation in        mixed venous blood SvO₂ using the Kim Rahn Farhi method.    -   9.4.2 {dot over (Q)} can be calculated using the Fick approach        where the PvCO₂-oxy and PaCO₂ as calculated by the Kim Rahn        Farhi method are used to calculate the respective CO₂ contents        using methods well known to those skilled in the art, and the        {dot over (V)}CO₂ is as calculated from {dot over (V)}A and        FETCO₂ as derived in the sequence of steps described above.    -   9.4.3 Mixed venous O₂ hemoglobin saturation are calculated as        follows. {dot over (V)}O₂ is calculated from {dot over        (V)}O₂={dot over (V)}A×(FIO₂−FETO₂) where FIO₂ and FETO₂ are the        fractional concentration of inspired and end tidal O₂        respectively. Using {dot over (V)}O₂, {dot over (Q)} as        calculated by Differential Fick or Kim Rahn Farhi or Fisher        Method, end capillary O₂ oxygen content (assuming end capillary        blood is fully saturated with oxygen), Mixed venous O₂        saturation can be calculated from the standard Fick equation.    -   9.4.4 Information regarding the arterial O₂ hemoglobin        saturation (SaO₂) (as read from a non-invasive commonly        available pulse oximeter that makes the measurement by shining        an infrared light through a finger), and the SvO₂ can be used to        calculate the fraction of shunted blood ({dot over (Q)}s)        (assuming fully oxygenated blood in the end pulmonary capillary)        by using the following equation

${\overset{.}{Q}s} = \frac{{\left( {{SP}\; O_{2}} \right)\overset{.}{Q}t} - {\left( {{Sa}\; O_{2}} \right)\overset{.}{Q}p}}{S\overset{\_}{v\;}O_{2}}$

Our method of performing the Kim Rahn Farhi is an improvement over theprevious art in that

-   -   (a) Test is performed simultaneously with a test for        differential Fick in spontaneously breathing subject.    -   (b) Data are pooled with the test as outlined above so        calculation of CO₂, is simultaneous to the other calculations.        In the previous art, the {dot over (V)}CO₂, calculation cannot        be done during a breath hold or simulated breath hold by        rebreathing.    -   (c) {dot over (V)}CO₂, measurement does not require a        pneumotachymeter which is expensive, cumbersome and error-prone.        In the previous art, {dot over (V)}CO₂, required for the        calculation of {dot over (Q)} required additional apparatus such        as pneumatchymeter or gas collection and volume measuring        apparatus.

9.5 Fisher E-I Test

-   -   9.5.1 Calculate {dot over (V)}A from the calibration phase, set        FGS flow={dot over (V)}A.    -   9.5.2 With FGS Flow at {dot over (V)}A, the PCO₂ in the FGS is        changed to any value and held at that value for a time        approximately equal to a recirculation time, about 30 s at rest.    -   9.5.3 PvCO₂-oxy is calculated using the PETCO₂−PICO₂ method        described by Fisher.

Our method of the Fisher E-I test is an improvement over the previousart in that the effect of change in breath size on the equilibrium valueof PETCO₂ is minimized by the SGDB circuit such that a larger breathdelivers physiologically neutral previously expired gas instead ofadditional test gas.

10.0 Method of Finding {dot over (V)}E Using Progressive Reduction ofFGS Flow:

10.1 Use FGS that Preferably has No CO₂

10.2 Wait for steady state as indicated by less than a threshold changein PETCO₂ over a designated time period. The actual thresholds and timeperiods are user defined according to the circumstances of the test andcan be determined by those skilled in the art.

10.3 When in steady state, reduce FGS flow by a small fixed flow, forexample 0.1 L/min, preferably at regular intervals of time or after eachbreath. Alternate flow reduction rates could be used, and the reductionneed not be linear in time.

10.4 Using a means for measuring pressure within the FGS reservoir inthe breathing circuit, for example a pressure transducer, monitor whenthe FGS reservoir bag first collapses. {dot over (V)}E is the FGS flowrate when the reservoir bag first collapses.

11.0 Method for Measuring Anatomical Dead Space

11.1 Measure {dot over (V)}E and {dot over (V)}A using any of themethods disclosed above

11.2 Measure the respiratory rate, preferably using the apparatus forcardiac output disclosed herein.

11.3 Calculate Anatomical Dead Space {dot over (V)}DAN=({dot over(V)}E−{dot over (V)}A)/respiratory rate

As many changes can be made to the various embodiments of the inventionwithout departing from the scope thereof; it is intended that all mattercontained herein be interpreted as illustrative of the invention but notin a limiting sense.

REFERENCE LIST

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We claim:
 1. A method of identifying alveolar ventilation (V_(A)) in asubject, the method comprising: (1) using a breathing circuit configuredto: i. on exhalation by the subject, keep exhaled gas substantiallyseparate from inhalation gas, and ii. on inhalation by the subject, whena first gas set (FGS) flow is less than a minute ventilation (V_(E)) ofthe subject, first provide FGS flow to the subject, and then provide abalance of the V_(E) of the subject that is substantially a second gasset (SGS); (2) setting the FGS flow into the breathing circuit at a rategreater than the V_(E) of the subject; (3) measuring an end tidal CO₂concentration (PETCO₂) in a steady state; (4) progressively lowering theFGS flow into the circuit, either breath by breath or continuously,until after a time equal to a recirculation time of CO₂ within thesubject after a rise in PETCO₂ values above a threshold value isobserved; and (5) deriving V_(A) as the rate of FGS flow at a point ofthe intersection between two lines comprising: (a) an average PETCO₂ insteady state; and (b) a straight line fit to the PETCO₂ values after therise in PETCO₂ values begins until the recirculation time.